1. Reservation 33% for Women in Lok Sabha and Assembly Seats

Why in News?

On June 11, 2025, the Government of India reiterated its intention to implement the Women’s Reservation policy—reserving 33% of seats in Lok Sabha and State Assemblies for women—starting from the 2029 General Elections.

The implementation will follow the completion of the delimitation process as mandated by the Nari Shakti Vandan Adhiniyam, 2023.

This makes the issue of women’s political empowerment and electoral reforms a prominent topic for CLAT Current Affairs 2026, as it relates to constitutional amendments, representation rights, and gender equity in governance.

 Introduction

The Nari Shakti Vandan Adhiniyam, also known as the 128th Constitutional Amendment Act, was passed in September 2023 with a commitment to provide one-third reservation to women in:

• Lok Sabha (Lower House of Parliament)
• State Legislative Assemblies
• Delhi Legislative Assembly

However, the law’s implementation is conditional upon two major prerequisites:

1. Delimitation of constituencies based on the new Census.
2. Enactment following the publication of Census data, expected after 2026.

This makes the issue critical for legal, political science, and current affairs studies—key segments in online coaching for CLAT.

Point-wise Summary of the Article

1. Government’s Announcement

• The Modi government plans to implement 33% reservation for women in the 2029 Lok Sabha elections.
• Sources say the Nari Shakti Vandan Adhiniyam will be implemented post-delimitation.
• Steps toward implementation will begin after the Census process is completed.

2. The Role of Delimitation

• Delimitation refers to redrawing the boundaries of electoral constituencies.
• As per the 2023 Act, women’s reserved seats will rotate after each delimitation.
• The latest Census data is necessary to conduct this exercise accurately.
• This aligns with Article 82 and 170 of the Indian Constitution (provisions for readjustment after each Census).

3. Legal Provisions Cited

• The move is grounded in the 128th Constitutional Amendment Act.
• The Act was passed in September 2023 and added a new clause for women’s reservation.
• Also includes sub-reservation for women from Scheduled Castes (SCs) and Scheduled Tribes (STs).

4. What the Law Says

• One-third of total seats in Lok Sabha, state assemblies, and Delhi Assembly shall be reserved for women.
• Reserved seats will be rotated after every delimitation.
• Comes into effect only after Census and Delimitation Commission’s notification.
• Cannot be enforced before 2029 elections.

5. Political and Electoral Implications

• Will significantly increase female representation in lawmaking bodies.
• May reshape party strategies, especially candidate selection and campaign policies.
• Encourages women’s political participation, breaking barriers to entry.
• Some critics argue that delaying implementation until 2029 weakens the reform’s urgency.

Notes on Key Terms and Concepts

 Significance for CLAT 2026 Aspirants

This issue is crucial for aspirants under:

• Polity and Constitution: Amendment process, representation, legislative procedures.
• Gender Justice: Women’s rights, equality, and political participation.
• Governance: Electoral reforms, democratic deepening.
• Current Affairs 2026: This will be a key topic in GK sections.

2.Drone Warfare and India: Swarms, Security, and Strategic Shifts

 Why in News?

The concept of drone swarms—large numbers of low-cost drones launched simultaneously—has emerged as a critical development in modern warfare, especially in the context of:

• Ukraine’s Operation Spider’s Web targeting Russian airbases.
• India-Pakistan tensions during Operation Sindoor.
• Use of Shahed-136 drones by Iran and Russia.

With the world witnessing asymmetric warfare, AI-powered drone technology, and counter-drone innovations, India too is preparing its defenses to confront the evolving threats posed by swarm drone systems.

For aspirants preparing with the best online coaching for CLAT, this topic is highly relevant under CLAT Current Affairs 2026 and falls under Science & Technology, International Relations, and National Security domains.

Introduction

Drones or Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs) are not new to warfare, but their miniaturization, cost-efficiency, and autonomous capabilities have transformed them into strategic game-changers.

From isolated reconnaissance missions to swarm drone attacks, these unmanned systems are redefining how wars are fought—often making traditional air-defense systems ineffective or obsolete.

India’s preparation to counter such threats, and its development of indigenous drone countermeasure systems, puts this topic at the core of Current Affairs 2026 for CLAT aspirants.

 Point-wise Summary

1. What Are Swarm Drones?

• Swarm drones are a group of autonomous or semi-autonomous UAVs that coordinate via software and sensors.
• Operate in self-organized groups, like swarms of bees.
• Capable of AI coordination, independent navigation, and collaborative attacks.

2. Why Swarm Drones Matter

• Asymmetry: Use of low-cost drones against high-value targets (missile bases, aircraft).
• Saturation: Capable of overwhelming even sophisticated air-defense systems.
• Low Cost: Easy and cheap to produce.
• Autonomy: Reduced dependency on human pilots or GPS, enabling attacks even in jammed environments.

3. Historical Context

• Use of drones dates back to World War I.
• Became prominent during:
  • 1991 Gulf War.
  • Nagorno-Karabakh conflict (2020) between Armenia and Azerbaijan.
  • Ukraine-Russia conflict and Israel-Iran confrontations.

4. Ukraine’s Operation Spider’s Web (June 2024)

• Ukraine deployed 100–150 UAVs to strike 5 Russian airbases.
• Estimated damage: Over $7 billion.
• Used Shahed-136 drones supplied by Iran.
• Marked a sophisticated example of drone swarm strategy.

5. India-Pakistan Hostility: Operation Sindoor

• Involved use of relatively low-cost drones along the western border.
• Objectives: Distract, saturate, and test India’s air-defense and radar systems.

6. Countries Leading in Swarm Drone Technology

7. Threat of Swarms

• Hard to detect and intercept.
• Multiple drones confuse radar and defense systems.
• Can carry lethal payloads or function as suicide drones.
• Used to damage:
  • Energy grids
  • Command posts
  • Communication lines
  • Fuel depots

8. Countermeasures Against Drone Swarms

India and other countries are investing in multi-layered drone defense. Key types include:

1. Kinetic Systems

• Use guns, anti-aircraft missiles, and C-RAMs.
• Example: Indian systems developed by Bharat Electronics Ltd (BEL) and DRDO.

1. Electronic Warfare (EW)

• Jam drone GPS and communication.
• Use of Directed Energy Weapons (DEWs) like High-Energy Lasers (HELs) to disable drones.

1. Drone-on-Drone Combat

• Drones designed to intercept other drones (e.g., SkyWall, DroneCatcher).

1. Net Systems

• Capture drones physically using nets.
• Useful for urban and civilian airspaces.

9. India’s Preparedness

India’s Ministry of Defence has fast-tracked counter-drone systems since 2020. Current strategies:

• Bharat Electronics’ ADCS (Air Defence Control System):
  • Real-time tracking.
  • Integration with Indian Air Force radar networks.
• Bhargavastra:
  • DRDO project using solar-powered drone interceptors.
• Anti-Drone System by DRDO:
  • Detects drones within 4 km range.
  • Neutralizes via soft kill (jamming) and hard kill (laser).

10. Future of Drone Warfare

• Global UAV market projected to reach $54.14 billion by 2030.
• India’s share in defense drone sector to rise significantly.
• Swarm drones may become mainstream in low-intensity conflicts and border operations.

Notes on Key Concepts for CLAT Aspirants

3.Echoes from Courtroom No. 24: The Verdict That Changed Indian Democracy

 Why in News?

On June 12, 2025, India marks 50 years since the historic verdict delivered by Justice Jagmohan Lal Sinha of the Allahabad High Court, which declared Indira Gandhi’s 1971 election void, setting off a dramatic sequence of political and constitutional events that ultimately led to the imposition of the Emergency (June 25, 1975).

This ruling is not just a case of electoral malpractice; it is a watershed moment in Indian democracy, symbolizing the tension between the judiciary and the executive, and raising important constitutional questions about due process, civil liberties, and judicial independence—essential themes for CLAT 2026 preparation.

 Introduction

The Allahabad High Court ruling on June 12, 1975, disqualified then Prime Minister Indira Gandhi from holding elected office. The ruling was a result of a petition filed by Raj Narain, who had contested against her in Rae Bareli and alleged electoral malpractice. Justice Sinha’s verdict found Indira Gandhi guilty on two counts, leading to her disqualification and a nationwide political crisis.

Within weeks, the Emergency was imposed, suspending fundamental rights and leading to censorship, arrests of political opponents, and constitutional amendments that altered India’s democratic framework.

This case, its verdict, and the events that followed are a must-know for aspirants preparing with the best online coaching for CLAT as it brings together themes from constitutional law, history, politics, and the judiciary.

 Point-wise Summary of the Historic Verdict and Its Implications

1. The Verdict: Key Highlights

• Delivered by Justice Jagmohan Lal Sinha in Courtroom No. 24 of the Allahabad High Court on June 12, 1975.
• Declared Indira Gandhi’s 1971 election void due to two main charges of electoral malpractice:
  1. Use of government resources and personnel, including her personal secretary Yashpal Kapoor (a government employee).
  2. Use of state machinery, such as loudspeakers and infrastructure from the Public Works Department.
• Resulted in Indira Gandhi’s disqualification from Parliament and her position as Prime Minister.

2. Events Leading to the Verdict

• Raj Narain, a socialist leader and her opponent from Rae Bareli, challenged the result, citing:
  • Misuse of state helicopters, government machinery.
  • Improper use of religion and religious symbols to sway voters.
  • Excessive spending and violation of election codes.

3. Justice Sinha’s Bold Judgment

• The ruling was unprecedented, being the first time a sitting PM’s election was declared void.
• Indira Gandhi was granted a 20-day stay on the verdict.
• Supreme Court later allowed a “conditional stay”, enabling her to remain MP but not vote or draw salary as PM.

4. Imposition of Emergency

• On June 25, 1975, citing a threat to national security and public order, Indira Gandhi imposed Emergency under Article 352.
• Civil liberties were suspended, opposition leaders were jailed, and the press was censored.
• The Election Laws were amended retroactively to nullify the basis of the verdict.

5. Role of Judiciary During Emergency

• Some judges supported Emergency actions, while others like Justice H.R. Khanna opposed it (famously dissenting in the ADM Jabalpur case).
• The judiciary faced a crisis of credibility as the government interfered in appointments (e.g., superseding Justice Khanna).
• For the first time, the executive openly altered seniority norms, appointing A.N. Ray as CJI over senior judges.

6. Aftermath of the Verdict

• The 43rd and 44th Amendments later restored democratic balance.
• The case shaped judicial philosophy for decades.
• The Supreme Court’s “basic structure doctrine” (Kesavananda Bharati) was reaffirmed, ensuring separation of powers and the independence of the judiciary.

7. Political and Legal Legacy

• The verdict continues to be a landmark case in Indian constitutional law.
• Emphasized that free and fair elections are a basic feature of the Constitution.
• Demonstrated the judiciary’s power to hold the executive accountable.
• Made Election Commission practices and model code of conduct more stringent.

 Important Legal & Constitutional Concepts

 Reflections on Democratic Governance

• The case underscores the fragility of democracy and the importance of judicial vigilance.
• Raises critical questions on:
  • Abuse of executive power.
  • Limits of judicial independence.
  • Need for checks and balances.

 Anecdotes and Historical Details

• The courtroom where the verdict was delivered is now renamed Courtroom No. 34.
• A raised platform was specially created for Indira Gandhi during trial so she wouldn’t have to stand in the witness box.
• The verdict spurred the Opposition to unite under the Janata Party, leading to Indira Gandhi’s defeat in 1977.

The judgment’s anniversary is a reminder that no one is above the Constitution.

4.How Astronauts Reach the International Space Station (ISS)

Why in News?

Indian astronaut Shubhanshu Shukla is all set to become only the second Indian to venture into space. He will be part of the Axiom-4 mission to the International Space Station (ISS), launching from the Kennedy Space Center in Florida aboard a SpaceX Crew Dragon spacecraft, propelled by Falcon 9 rocket. This journey is expected to take about 28 hours.

This mission holds significance as it not only marks India’s rising participation in international space missions but also demonstrates how modern aerospace engineering collaborates across nations. It becomes an essential topic for “CLAT Current Affairs 2026” and “Current Affairs 2026” due to its scientific, international relations, and technological aspects.

 Introduction

The International Space Station (ISS) orbits Earth at an altitude of about 400 km and is considered a floating laboratory in space where astronauts from different countries conduct scientific experiments. It is a symbol of peaceful global cooperation.

Space missions like Axiom-4 shed light on how private companies such as SpaceX, in collaboration with government and international agencies, are redefining human spaceflight. For law aspirants preparing with the best online coaching for CLAT, understanding how international treaties, commercial partnerships, and technological developments intersect is crucial.

 Step-by-Step Summary: How Astronauts Reach ISS

1. Mission Details

• Mission Name: Axiom-4
• Launch Site: Kennedy Space Centre, Cape Canaveral, Florida
• Vehicle: SpaceX Crew Dragon (on Falcon 9 rocket)
• Crew Members:
  • Peggy Whitson (USA)
  • Shubhanshu Shukla (India)
  • Slawosz Uznanski-Wisniewski (Poland)
  • Tibor Kapu (Hungary)

2. Planning the Flight

• Launches to ISS must be carefully timed because the station is in constant motion.
• Scientists calculate orbital trajectories to ensure the spacecraft aligns with the ISS’s path.
• Launches are possible only during specific windows when alignment is optimal.
• This requires consideration of celestial alignment and fuel efficiency.

3. Rocket and Capsule Structure

• The rocket used is Falcon 9, a partially reusable two-stage rocket developed by SpaceX.
• First Stage: Uses Merlin engines; provides initial thrust; detaches and lands back on Earth.
• Second Stage: Carries the Dragon capsule to low Earth orbit.
• After separation from the rocket, the Dragon capsule continues on its journey to the ISS.

4. Path to the ISS

• The ISS travels at around 28,000 km/h.
• The Dragon capsule:
  • Raises its altitude gradually.
  • Performs flip maneuvers and phasing maneuvers to match orbit.
• Uses 16 Draco thrusters to fine-tune its path.
• These maneuvers are complex and governed by pre-programmed algorithms and onboard sensor data.

5. Docking with the ISS

• Once close to the ISS, the Dragon capsule:
  • Establishes communication with the ISS.
  • Aligns with the “keep-out sphere” (a 200m imaginary safety zone around the ISS).
  • Matches velocity with the ISS (relative speed close to zero).
• Final approach:
  • Dragon initiates docking sequence.
  • Sensors such as LiDAR, GPS, and infrared help with alignment.
• Autonomous docking is standard, but astronauts can manually override if needed.

6. Post-Docking Procedures

• Takes 1–2 hours after docking to:
  • Stabilize the capsule.
  • Ensure safety checks.
  • Equalize pressurization.
• Once complete, hatch opens, and astronauts enter the ISS.

Important Technical Concepts (Explained)

5.‘Realising the Return’- How an Indian Became Part of Axiom-4

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 Why in News

On June 9, 2025, a detailed feature in The Indian Express highlighted the strategic Indo-US partnership that led to Group Captain Shubhanshu Shukla’s inclusion in the Axiom-4 Mission. The mission to the International Space Station (ISS) marks India’s renewed presence in global human spaceflight, following the historic flight of Rakesh Sharma in 1984.

This mission was enabled by a 2023 agreement signed during Prime Minister Narendra Modi’s state visit to the United States, where India and the US committed to closer space cooperation. The astronaut training, selection, and eventual launch were facilitated under this pact, which also signaled India’s intent to actively participate in global space governance and commercial space exploration.

 Introduction: Bridging the Space Gap with Axiom-4

India’s journey in human spaceflight took a transformative leap in 2024 when Group Captain Shubhanshu Shukla became part of the private Axiom-4 space mission. The move was not just a technical achievement—it was a product of years of diplomatic, scientific, and commercial collaboration between ISRO (Indian Space Research Organisation) and NASA (National Aeronautics and Space Administration).

For CLAT 2026 aspirants, this episode offers a live example of:

• Strategic diplomacy
• Public-private partnerships
• Emerging space law and international cooperation
• Scientific diplomacy as a tool of soft power

 Point-wise Summary for CLAT and UPSC Aspirants

1. Strategic Partnership: The Modi-Biden 2023 Agreement

• During PM Modi’s June 2023 state visit to Washington, India and the US announced a joint mission for human spaceflight cooperation.
• It was confirmed that ISRO and NASA would collaborate to send an Indian astronaut to space by 2024.
• This was the first such Indo-US crewed mission agreement.

2. Background to the Agreement

• The announcement wasn’t sudden; it followed years of Indo-US discussions.
• Previous collaborations included:
  • The NISAR satellite mission (NASA-ISRO Synthetic Aperture Radar)
  • Joint development of space technology and training modules

3. Why Shubhanshu Shukla?

• Group Captain Shubhanshu Shukla, a veteran IAF pilot with 2000+ hours of flight time, was selected for the mission.
• His selection marked a return to space for India after a 40-year gap since Rakesh Sharma’s 1984 Soviet-led mission.
• He is the first Indian astronaut to go to space via an American launch platform.

4. Symbolic and Practical Importance

• The initiative is named ‘Realising the Return’, referring to:
  • A return of India to human space missions.
  • The return on years of bilateral investment in space diplomacy.
• India gains access to training modules, ISS experiment data, and cutting-edge aerospace exposure.

5. About Axiom Space’s Role

• Axiom Space, a US-based private space company, selected Indian participation in Axiom-4, a commercial spaceflight to the ISS.
• Axiom’s mission differs from earlier government missions:
  • It involves private astronauts
  • Sponsored by both governments and private entities
  • Focused on scientific, commercial, and experimental objectives

6. Shukla’s Role in the Axiom-4 Mission

• Participated in over 60 experiments aboard the ISS, including:
  • Microgravity impact on human cells
  • Crop growth in space
  • Immune system degeneration
  • Muscle loss and regeneration
• Helped engage with students and researchers across the globe.

7. Global and Domestic Impact

• Places India among elite spacefaring nations actively contributing to ISS missions.
• Enhances India’s reputation in the emerging global commercial space sector.
• Strengthens ISRO’s own Gaganyaan mission preparations, currently scheduled post-2025.

8. Benefits to ISRO and Gaganyaan

• Provides real-time mission insights.
• Accelerates India’s astronaut training protocols.
• Prepares India for full-scale crewed missions with indigenous spacecraft.
• Transfers soft infrastructure like crew operations, nutrition, medical support, and zero-gravity adaptation.

 Legal and Policy Framework

1. Legal Framework of Space Cooperation

• The mission reflects the principles of the Artemis Accords—a set of international rules for responsible space exploration.
• While India hasn’t signed the Artemis Accords officially, it aligns with its core principles through collaboration.

1. India’s Domestic Space Law Progress

• India is finalizing its Space Activities Bill, which will regulate:
  • Licensing of private space operators
  • Commercial use of outer space
  • Liability for damages during missions
• The bill aims to bring India’s space law in line with international standards, essential as more private entities like Axiom collaborate with ISRO.

 Constitutional and Governance Relevance

1. Scientific Temper & Article 51A(h)

• Promotes the fundamental duty to develop scientific temper, humanism, and spirit of inquiry.
• Missions like this inspire youth involvement in science and innovation.

2. Soft Power and Article 51(d)

• Encourages international peace and cooperation, aligning with India’s diplomatic efforts in peaceful space use.

 Explanation of Peculiar Terms

• Artemis Accords: A US-led set of principles to guide space exploration, encouraging transparency, peaceful use, and data sharing.
• NISAR: NASA-ISRO SAR satellite to monitor natural hazards and climate change.
• Axiom Space: A commercial space company working with NASA to send private and government-sponsored astronauts to space.
• ISS (International Space Station): A multinational research laboratory in low-Earth orbit.

6.Aircraft Black Boxes – The Silent Witnesses of Air Crashes

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 Why in News

Following a deadly Air India plane crash in Ahmedabad on June 12, 2025, investigators have launched a detailed probe into the possible causes of the tragedy. Central to this investigation is the search for the aircraft’s black boxes—devices designed to record critical data and audio that could help reconstruct the final moments before the crash.

For CLAT and UPSC aspirants, this topic is not just about aviation safety but also about technological accountability, scientific investigation, international aviation regulations, and policy response to disasters.

 Introduction

Every time a plane crashes, the world asks the same question: What went wrong? While the aircraft might be damaged beyond recognition, one tool often survives the impact and holds the answers—the black box.

Despite the name, black boxes are not black at all. These devices, often painted bright orange, are key instruments in modern air crash investigations. They house critical flight data and cockpit conversations that allow investigators to piece together what went wrong.

In this article, we explore what black boxes are, how they work, their history, and their role in improving aviation safety.

 Point-wise Summary for CLAT and UPSC Aspirants

1. What is a Black Box?

• A black box refers to two critical recording devices in an aircraft:
  1. Cockpit Voice Recorder (CVR) – Records audio conversations between pilots, and engine or cockpit sounds.
  2. Flight Data Recorder (FDR) – Records over 80 types of data such as:
     • Altitude
     • Speed
     • Pitch and roll
     • Vertical acceleration
     • Engine settings
     • Control surface positions

Together, they reconstruct the events leading to a crash.

2. Where are They Placed?

• Typically located in the tail section of the aircraft, which is least affected during a crash.
• Housed in titanium or steel cases with insulation to withstand:
  • Explosions
  • Water immersion
  • Extreme temperatures
  • Impact forces

3. What If Planes Crash Over Water?

• Modern black boxes come with underwater locator beacons.
• These beacons emit signals for 30 days after a crash to help recovery teams.
• However, if the devices are not located quickly, like in Malaysia Airlines MH370 (2014), data may remain unrecovered.

4. Why Were Black Boxes Introduced?

• Invented by Dr. David Warren of Australia in the 1950s after a string of unexplained mid-air crashes.
• The world’s first commercial black box was tested in Havilland Comet aircraft.
• Australia was the first country to mandate black boxes in 1963 for all aircraft.

5. Why Are They Called “Black Boxes”?

• Ironically, they are painted orange for visibility.
• The term “black box” comes from older equipment designs that were:
  • Enclosed in black casing
  • Used for military secrecy or electronic testing
  • Symbolic of mystery (i.e., data locked inside)

6. Evolution of Recording Technology

• Earlier black boxes used metal tape strips.
• Then came magnetic tape and hard drives.
• Today’s devices use solid-state memory chips for higher durability and data recovery.

7. Legal Mandate

• Every commercial aircraft today is mandatorily required to carry two black boxes—CVR and FDR.
• This is regulated under International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) guidelines.

8. Role in Air Crash Investigations

• Black boxes are not about blame but about learning from accidents.
• Help in:
  • Determining if human error, mechanical failure, or weather caused the crash.
  • Making design or training improvements.
  • Updating aviation safety norms worldwide.

 Legal and Constitutional Framework

1. In India

• Aircraft Act, 1934 and Aircraft Rules, 1937 govern aviation operations.
• Directorate General of Civil Aviation (DGCA) mandates black box recovery under aircraft accident protocols.
• Investigation is done by the Aircraft Accident Investigation Bureau (AAIB) under the Ministry of Civil Aviation.

1. Globally

• ICAO’s Annex 13 governs aircraft accident investigations.
• Black box standards defined by EU Aviation Safety Agency (EASA) and FAA (USA).

 Key Terms Explained

7.India’s Economic Forecast for FY26

India’s Economic Forecast for FY26 –  Domestic Challenges Amid Global Uncertainty

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 Why in News

India’s GDP for FY 2024-25 showed a solid 6.5% growth, and projections for FY 2025-26 are optimistic. However, global headwinds and structural domestic issues—such as weak private investment, sluggish consumption, and trade uncertainties—continue to pose hurdles. While India remains one of the fastest-growing major economies, the overall global scenario, as per IMF and RBI projections, reflects a complex economic environment.

This development is crucial for CLAT and UPSC aspirants due to its direct link with current economic policies, fiscal reforms, and global economic diplomacy. It also serves as a critical topic for legal reasoning questions involving fiscal responsibility and governance.

 Introduction

The Indian economy has shown resilience, growing at 6.5% in FY24-25, aided by government infrastructure spending and a rebound in services. However, familiar domestic challenges—including underwhelming private capital expenditure (capex), muted household consumption, and a negative credit impulse—are back in focus.

Meanwhile, global uncertainties, such as the US-China trade tensions, disruptions in supply chains, and policy rate movements in developed economies, have further complicated India’s economic outlook.

 Point-Wise Summary for CLAT and UPSC Aspirants

1. GDP Performance & Forecast

• FY 2024-25 (India): 6.5% real GDP growth.
• FY 2025-26 Projection (India): Between 6.0%–6.5%, supported by services, consumption, and selective capex.
• IMF World GDP Forecast: 2.8% in 2025 and 3.0% in 2026 (April projection).
• China’s Forecast: 4.0% in 2025, declining to 3.6% in 2026.
• US Forecast: 1.8% in 2025 and 1.7% in 2026.

2. Domestic Economic Challenges

• Weak private capex despite policy incentives.
• Patchy rural recovery with inconsistent agricultural performance.
• Slowdown in household consumption, especially in lower-income groups.
• Muted credit demand, with banking system showing cautious lending.
• Balance sheet issues in households and corporates—household debt remains a concern.

3. Global Uncertainty Factors

• Trade tensions with the US may limit foreign investment.
• China’s structural slowdown creates new regional dynamics.
• Weakening US economy may impact exports and global demand.
• Volatility in energy prices and geopolitical risks (including Pakistan and West Asia).

4. Structural Constraints and Delayed Reforms

• Post-GST and Insolvency Code reforms brought partial relief but not a full turnaround in corporate capex.
• The 2019 corporate tax cut (from 30% to 22%) boosted short-term profits but failed to accelerate investment cycles.
• Reforms in labour, land, and credit access have slowed or stalled.
• Consumption tax reliefs announced recently have not yielded expected boosts.

5. Government Expenditure and Capex

• Continued focus on public infrastructure spending.
• Reliance on government push due to stagnant private investment.
• Limited fiscal space for more rate cuts or large-scale relief packages.

6. Monetary Policy and RBI Intervention

• RBI cut rates by 100 basis points since February 2025.
• Latest cut of 50 bps announced in June 2025.
• Limited scope for further rate cuts due to already low repo rate levels.
• Despite rate cuts, borrowing costs remain high for industry due to risk aversion by banks.

7. Employment and Consumption Risks

• Job growth lags behind GDP growth.
• India needs to generate 8 million+ jobs annually to keep up with demographics.
• Informal sector stress and urban unemployment remain concerns.
• Private capex and job creation are tightly linked and both remain under strain.

8. 🇮🇳 Election Year and Policy Push

• The 2025 state election calendar was seen as an opportunity to push reforms.
• Halfway into the year, however, appetite for large structural reforms is low.
• Labour code reforms and land acquisition laws have not progressed.

9. Opportunities Amid Challenges

• Potential trade realignments could benefit India.
• Companies diversifying away from China may increase FDI inflows to India.
• Services sector—especially IT, fintech, health, education—shows strong resilience.

 Table Summary: GDP Growth Projections

 Legal and Constitutional Angle

Article 38 (Directive Principles)

• Emphasizes that the State must strive to minimize income inequalities and ensure economic justice.

Article 39(c)

• The State shall ensure that concentration of wealth and means of production do not become detrimental to public interest.

FRBM Act (Fiscal Responsibility and Budget Management Act)

• Limits fiscal deficit targets for macroeconomic stability.
• Has been relaxed during pandemic and post-recovery periods to allow higher public capex.

IBC (Insolvency and Bankruptcy Code)

• Introduced in 2016, aims to resolve corporate debt quickly.
• Though successful in some cases, it has faced delays and challenges in NCLT capacity.

 Key Economic Terms Explained

• Capex (Capital Expenditure): Long-term investment in infrastructure or assets (e.g., factories, roads).
• Credit Impulse: The flow of new credit to GDP; negative means banks are not lending enough.
• Basis Points (bps): A unit equal to 1/100th of a percentage point. 50 bps = 0.50%.
• Repo Rate: The rate at which RBI lends money to commercial banks. Lowering it stimulates the economy.
• Fiscal Space: The government’s ability to spend without risking financial instability.
• FDI (Foreign Direct Investment): Investment from foreign companies into Indian businesses.

 Relevance for CLAT 2026 and Law Aspirants

• Crucial for GK and Current Affairs section.
• Topics like economic legislation, reforms, taxation, and financial policy can appear in Legal Reasoning.

Questions may also connect economic indicators to rights-based policy frameworks (e.g., right to work, socio-economic justice).

8.Renewable and Protected – Securing India’s Wind Energy Sector in the Digital Age

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 Why in News

India’s wind energy sector, a key part of its clean energy transition, is facing rising cybersecurity concerns, following a false but viral report claiming a cyberattack by Pakistan had knocked out 70% of India’s electricity. Though the report was fake, it revealed a critical vulnerability: India’s renewable infrastructure remains digitally unguarded.

This has triggered a wider debate around cybersecurity, localized manufacturing, and the urgent need for technological self-reliance in India’s wind sector, particularly as the country targets over 500 GW of non-fossil-based electric capacity by 2030, including 100 GW from wind energy alone.

 Introduction

While India has made commendable progress in deploying wind power by improving turbine efficiency and grid integration, the sector now faces 21st-century threats, including cyberattacks, foreign software dependence, and supply chain vulnerabilities.

The article argues that manufacturing innovation, cybersecurity readiness, and localized R&D (Research & Development) are crucial for India to truly lead in renewable energy. In the absence of robust embedded systems, secure SCADA protocols, and indigenous control mechanisms, even green power could be turned off at will in cyber warfare.

For CLAT 2026 aspirants, this topic integrates constitutional goals, environmental sustainability, national security, and economic self-reliance—making it interdisciplinary and legally significant.

Point-wise Summary for CLAT and UPSC Aspirants

1. Cybersecurity Risks in Wind Energy

• A Pakistani outlet falsely claimed 70% of India’s power was knocked out via cyberattack.
• Though untrue, it underscored genuine risks to digital infrastructure.
• Most wind systems use SCADA (Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition), vulnerable to remote-access breaches.

2. Current Achievements in the Sector

• India has improved:
  • Turbine efficiency
  • Grid connectivity
  • Speed of deployment
• These gains are foundational but insufficient in digital warfare scenarios.

3. The Hidden Problem: Cybersecurity Lag

• Unlike defence or finance sectors, where cyber shields are strong, India’s renewable sector lacks robust digital security.
• Threats include:
  • Remote takeovers of wind farms
  • Malware in PLCs (Programmable Logic Controllers) and embedded systems
  • Lack of audits for software vulnerabilities

4. The Bigger Mission: 500 GW by 2030

• India aims for 500 GW of non-fossil-based capacity by 2030, including 100 GW from wind energy.
• The challenge is not just how much energy is produced, but how safely and indigenously it is manufactured.

5. Local Manufacturing and R&D Gaps

• India currently depends on foreign Original Equipment Manufacturers (OEMs).
• NITI Aayog’s 2024 roadmap pushes for:
  • Localization of manufacturing
  • Mandatory in-country R&D by OEMs
  • Shift from passive assembly to innovation hubs

6. Why Local R&D Matters

• It’s not just job creation—turbines need to be built for India’s geography, including:
  • Coastal areas
  • Dust-prone plains
  • High-heat zones (45°C+)
• European-designed windmills buckle under Indian conditions.

7. Problems with Current Policy

• Current amendments lack:
  • Enforcement mechanisms
  • Clarity on embedded system certification
  • Strong domestic testing infrastructure
• “Make in India” lacks teeth unless local design, not just assembly, is enforced.

8. Certification Challenges

• Lack of Indian standards makes it tough for:
  • Indian vendors to clear tenders
  • Enforcement of quality benchmarks
• Revised List of Models and Manufacturers (RLMM) is still not aligned to local performance needs.

9. Strategic and Security Implications

• Without secure embedded systems, wind farms can be remotely shut down.
• This becomes a serious risk during:
  • Geo-political tensions
  • War-like conditions
  • Critical natural disasters
• The energy grid becomes a potential target for foreign control or sabotage.

10. 🇮🇳 India’s Policy Direction

• The need of the hour:
  • Mandatory R&D investment from OEMs
  • Cybersecurity audits for every wind system
  • Legal push for localized software development
  • Formation of a national cyber-resilience framework for renewables

Legal and Constitutional Relevance

1. Article 21 (Right to Life)

• Includes the right to safe living conditions.
• Disruptions to power and energy infrastructure pose threats to public health and national security.

2. Article 51A(h)

• Promotes the duty of every citizen to develop scientific temper.
• Supports innovation and self-reliance in energy tech.

3. Energy Conservation Act, 2001

• The act mandates efficient energy use.
• With amendments, it can expand to include cybersecurity as part of energy efficiency.

4. Environmental Protection Act, 1986

• Can be interpreted to include protection of clean energy systems from sabotage or technical disruption.

 Important Terms Explained

 Relevance for CLAT 2026 and UPSC

• Legal Reasoning: National security + public interest laws
• GK/Current Affairs: Energy policy, clean tech innovation, international cyber threats
• Legal Aptitude: Infrastructure regulation, environmental law, constitutional protections

9.Upper Siang Hydropower Project in Arunachal Pradesh: Protests, Strategy, and Geopolitical Concerns

 Why in News

The 11.2 GW Upper Siang Hydropower Project in Arunachal Pradesh, initiated by the Ministry of Jal Shakti, has come into the spotlight again. Despite a pre-feasibility report ordered three years ago, the project has faced delays due to local opposition and geopolitical tensions. Now, with growing pressure due to China’s upstream activities near the India-China border, NHPC Ltd. has been directed to expedite site selection and project finalisation.

 Introduction

The Upper Siang project is one of India’s largest proposed hydropower ventures aimed at utilizing the massive hydroelectric potential of the Siang River in Arunachal Pradesh. The project, however, is marred by local protests, environmental concerns, and strategic sensitivity due to its proximity to the Line of Actual Control (LAC) with China.

The project becomes especially relevant in the backdrop of China’s own 60 GW hydro project planned just 50 km upstream across the border in Medog County, Tibet. This development has pushed India to accelerate its own water infrastructure projects as a strategic counterbalance.

 Point-wise Summary for CLAT and UPSC Aspirants

1. Project Background

• The Ministry of Jal Shakti ordered a pre-feasibility report three years ago for the 11.2 GW Siang Upper Multipurpose Project.
• The project has been proposed on the Siang River, which is the name of the Brahmaputra River in Arunachal Pradesh before it enters Assam.

2. Current Status

• The decision on the final project site has been delayed due to local issues, including protests by potentially displaced communities.
• The NHPC (National Hydroelectric Power Corporation) is now tasked with expediting the selection of the site for the project.

3. Geopolitical Relevance

• The urgency is partly driven by China’s 60 GW hydro project in Medog County, Tibet, which is less than 50 km from the Indian border.
• China’s project poses a strategic and environmental risk for India’s northeastern water systems.

4. Local Opposition

• Communities in the area are protesting due to:
  • Fear of displacement
  • Impact on biodiversity and forest cover
  • Threat to tribal livelihoods and local ecology

5. NHPC’s Next Steps

• NHPC has identified multiple potential sites using:
  • Desk-based studies
  • Satellite reconnaissance
• However, on-ground investigations are being delayed due to local protests.
• Despite opposition, the Centre is keen to push the project forward as part of its strategic infrastructure plans.

6. Strategic Implications

• The project is seen as a hydrological counter to Chinese activity.
• It also feeds into India’s larger National Hydropower Mission, which seeks to increase green energy capacity and border infrastructure.

 Legal and Constitutional Frameworks Involved

1. Constitutional Provisions

• Article 48A: Directive Principle instructing the State to protect and improve the environment.
• Schedule VI: Protects the rights of tribal areas in northeastern states; any land acquisition must respect these rights.
• Article 243 ZD: Mandates the participation of local panchayats in planning for economic development, especially relevant to developmental projects in tribal belts.

1. Environmental Laws

• Environment (Protection) Act, 1986: Requires Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) for large infrastructure projects.
• Forest Rights Act, 2006: Recognises the traditional rights of forest-dwelling tribes, making displacement difficult without their consent.

1. Legal Issues

• Possible PILs (Public Interest Litigations) by environmental and tribal rights groups.
• Conflict between strategic development vs. environmental sustainability and tribal autonomy.

 Timeline of Events

 Key Locations Mentioned

• Siang River – Flows through Arunachal Pradesh, becomes Brahmaputra in Assam.
• Medog County (Tibet) – Where China is building a 60 GW dam project.
• Dite Dime and Ugeng – Potential sites under NHPC’s consideration.
• Upper Siang District, Arunachal Pradesh – Main project site, facing resistance.

 Important Notes (Concept Clarifications)

• NHPC Ltd.: A government-run corporation responsible for hydroelectric power development in India.
• Pre-feasibility report: A study to assess whether a project is viable before detailed investigations.
• Strategic Infrastructure: Projects developed for both economic and security purposes, especially in border areas.
• Reconnaissance: Initial survey or examination of a region to collect data, usually before large projects or military actions.

 Relevance for CLAT and UPSC Exams

This topic is highly relevant under the CLAT Current Affairs 2026 and UPSC General Studies curriculum. It links:

• Constitutional and legal provisions
• Environmental governance
• Federal-state relations (Centre pushing NHPC despite state-level protests)
• India-China border policy
• Infrastructure and energy development

10.Why Axiom-4 Matters – India’s Next Giant Leap in Human Spaceflight

CLAT Current Affairs 2026 | Best Online Coaching for CLAT | Online Coaching for CLAT

 Why in News

On February 27, 2024, Group Captain Shubhanshu Shukla became one of the astronauts aboard the Axiom-4 mission to the International Space Station (ISS). This mission marks a new era in India’s space history—one where Indian astronauts not only fly to space but also contribute meaningfully to global scientific research.

Unlike India’s first space traveler, Rakesh Sharma, whose 1984 mission aboard a Soviet spacecraft could not yield long-term research insights due to India’s limited space capabilities at that time, Shukla’s mission is happening at a time when India has its own growing space program, including the ambitious Gaganyaan mission.

Introduction: Why Axiom-4 Is a Turning Point for India

India’s human spaceflight journey took a dramatic leap with Shubhanshu Shukla’s participation in the Axiom-4 mission. Axiom-4 is not just a symbolic step, but also a practical and strategic gain for ISRO (Indian Space Research Organisation) as it prepares for its own manned mission: Gaganyaan.

This mission matters because:

• It gives Indian scientists a real-time view of crewed space missions.
• The astronaut will bring back operational and scientific insights that are essential for Gaganyaan.
• It places India in the elite group of nations contributing to global space science and commercial space operations.

 Point-Wise Summary for CLAT 2026 & UPSC Aspirants

1. About Axiom-4 Mission

• Conducted by Axiom Space, a US-based private space company.
• Launched with 4 astronauts including Group Captain Shubhanshu Shukla from India.
• Mission aims to conduct over 60 scientific experiments aboard the International Space Station (ISS).

2. 🇮🇳 Group Captain Shubhanshu Shukla (India’s Space Story 2.0)

• Commissioned into Indian Air Force (IAF) in 2006.
• Logged over 2,000 flight hours.
• Selected to fly on Axiom-4 to ISS, becoming India’s second astronaut to go to space, and the first in the private+commercial spaceflight era.
• His experience will directly aid ISRO’s human spaceflight (Gaganyaan).

3. Comparison with Rakesh Sharma (1984)

• Rakesh Sharma’s mission was a symbol of Indo-Soviet cooperation, but India had no capacity to capitalize on the experience afterward.
• Now, with decades of ISRO’s progress and Gaganyaan on the horizon, Shukla’s mission is a strategic investment in building India’s astronaut training, human spaceflight capability, and science contributions.

4. What Will Astronauts Do in Axiom-4

• Conduct 60+ scientific activities, including:
  • Experiments on muscle degradation in microgravity
  • Growing crops in space
  • Studying impact of microgravity on human cells and diseases
  • Impact of space conditions on cardiac rhythm, immune system, and aging
  • Interactions with students and youth for public science communication

5. Crew of Axiom-4: The “Fantastic Four”

• 1. Slawosz Uznanski (Poland) – Physicist and CERN expert
• 2. Peggy Whitson (USA) – Most experienced female astronaut; 675 days in space
• 3. Shubhanshu Shukla (India) – Fighter pilot turned astronaut
• 4. Tibor Kapu (Hungary) – Mechanical engineer, space materials expert

6. Scientific Gains from the Mission

• Unique experiments under zero gravity, especially in:
  • Muscle behavior and aging
  • Polymer and bio-medical research
  • Crop growth and sustainability
• These studies are impossible to replicate on Earth due to gravity.

7. Gaganyaan & India’s Human Spaceflight Program

• Gaganyaan is India’s first indigenous human space mission, expected to launch within the next 2 years.
• Shukla’s mission gives Indian agencies practical inputs on:
  • Life support systems
  • In-orbit behavior
  • Crew training
  • Medical protocols
• India is now capable of building, training, and launching astronauts in collaboration with global partners.

Legal, Strategic, and Policy Implications

1. Legal Provisions

• India is not yet part of the Artemis Accords, but its participation in missions like Axiom-4 may pave the way.
• Space law in India is still evolving. The Space Activities Bill, pending in Parliament, will regulate:
  • Private-sector participation in space
  • Liability for damage caused by space objects
  • Licensing for commercial launches

1. Strategic Importance

• With nations like the US, Russia, China expanding space dominance, India must participate in space diplomacy and joint missions.
• Participation in commercial missions like Axiom-4 strengthens India’s soft power in the global space race.

 Timeline

 Key Concepts & Notes for CLAT Aspirants

• ISS (International Space Station): A habitable satellite in low-earth orbit where multinational space research is conducted.
• Microgravity: The condition in space that allows scientists to study biology and materials in ways not possible on Earth.
• Axiom Space: A private space company leading commercial human missions to space.
• Zero-Gravity Experimentation: Studies conducted in the absence of gravity to understand how systems behave in space.
• Gaganyaan: India’s upcoming indigenous human spaceflight mission led by ISRO.

 CLAT & UPSC Relevance

This topic intersects multiple themes:

• Science & Tech: Space research, human spaceflight
• International Relations: India’s global space presence and partnerships
• Legal Framework: Evolving space law and regulatory needs
• Governance: Role of private sector and strategic national programs

11.Who Judges the Judges?

 Who Judges the Judges? The Justice Yashwant Verma Case & Judicial Accountability Debate

CLAT Current Affairs 2026 | Best Online Coaching for CLAT | Online Coaching for CLAT

 Why in News

The Justice Yashwant Verma case has sparked intense debate about judicial accountability, constitutional safeguards, and the proper mechanisms for investigating judges. The discovery of burnt currency at his residence led to an in-house inquiry by a panel of Supreme Court judges. Later, the Chief Justice of India recommended impeachment, but the broader question emerged:

Who judges the judges in a constitutional democracy like India?

Two perspectives are highlighted in the article:

• Govind Mathur, former Chief Justice of Allahabad High Court, argues that an in-house inquiry does not grant immunity from criminal law.
• Shashank Maheshwari, legal academic, contends that peer review under constitutional safeguards is the appropriate channel, not politicized police intervention.

 Introduction

The judiciary is a cornerstone of democracy, entrusted with upholding constitutional values and public trust. However, when a judge faces allegations of serious misconduct or corruption, it leads to a constitutional dilemma: How to hold them accountable without undermining judicial independence?

The case of Justice Yashwant Verma has revived this debate, especially because it involves criminal allegations (burnt currency discovered at his home) and a parallel internal judicial inquiry under the 1968 Judges (Inquiry) Act.

For CLAT 2026 aspirants, this case is significant as it explores:

• Judicial ethics
• Separation of powers
• Constitutional safeguards
• Role of Parliament vs Judiciary
• Due process in judge accountability

 Point-wise Summary of the Article

1. Govind Mathur: “In-house inquiry is not immunity”

1. Incident Background
   • Burnt currency was found at Justice Yashwant Verma’s residence in March 2025.
   • This caused serious public concern about judicial integrity.
   • The judiciary responded by initiating an in-house inquiry.
2. CJIs Actions
   • The Chief Justice of India constituted a panel of senior judges.
   • Based on the findings, the President of India was advised to initiate impeachment proceedings.
3. Legal Argument
   • Mathur argues that in-house mechanisms cannot override criminal law.
   • The law laid down in Veeraswami case does not bar investigation of a judge when criminality is involved.
4. Need for FIR and Police Role
   • FIR under various laws: Bharatiya Nyaya Sanhita 2023, PMLA, Income Tax Act, etc.
   • In-house inquiry cannot replace standard criminal procedures like FIRs, seizures, or arrests.
5. Due Process for Police
   • The police were reportedly denied access to seize documents or conduct a forensic probe.
   • This is seen as violating basic criminal procedure and evidentiary laws.
6. Conclusion
   • While judicial independence must be protected, judges are not above the law.
   • Transparency requires allowing criminal investigation to proceed in parallel with internal judicial review.

1. Shashank Maheshwari: “Peer review is the proper channel”

1. Judicial Independence
   • Refers to Argya Sengupta’s book discussing the Nehru-Sabharwal debate on judicial accountability.
   • Sabharwal emphasized judiciary’s role in self-regulation, resisting parliamentary overreach.
2. Constitutional Safeguards
   • Judges (Inquiry) Act, 1968 was created post-independence to replace political interference.
   • It provides for impeachment after a detailed inquiry, maintaining constitutional balance.
3. Legal Precedents
   • In Keshav Singh v. Speaker and People’s Union for Civil Liberties, the SC ruled against arbitrary punishment of judges by other branches.
4. Process Integrity
   • Argues that criminal FIRs or police intervention would set a dangerous precedent.
   • It would open the judiciary to political vendetta or populist pressures.
5. Against Immediate FIRs
   • Maheshwari supports removal via impeachment, not arrest or prosecution via executive action.
   • This ensures institutional insulation of the judiciary from political interference.
6. Conclusion
   • Accountability must occur through constitutionally structured peer mechanisms, not criminal shortcuts.
   • He supports reforms in the Judges (Inquiry) Act but warns against bypassing it.

 Constitutional and Legal Framework

1. Judges (Inquiry) Act, 1968

• Sets the procedure for impeachment of High Court or Supreme Court judges.
• Only Parliament can remove a judge on grounds of proved misbehavior or incapacity.

2. Veeraswami Case (1991)

• Ruled that judges are not immune to criminal investigation, but prior CJI approval is required.
• Interprets Article 124(4) of the Constitution.

3. Article 124(4) & 124(5)

• Provide the basis for judicial removal.
• Impeachment requires special majority in Parliament.

4. Article 50

• Directive Principle that calls for separation of judiciary from executive.

 Legal and Ethical Issues for CLAT & UPSC

Key Terms Explained

• Impeachment of Judges: A formal process to remove a judge from office by Parliament.
• In-house Mechanism: Internal judicial panel investigating misconduct without criminal prosecution.
• Peer Review: Accountability conducted by fellow judges, not police or political actors.
• Veeraswami Doctrine: CJI approval is required to investigate judges under criminal law.
• Constitutional Morality: Adherence to constitutional spirit over procedural technicalities.

 Relevance for CLAT 2026

This topic is deeply intertwined with:

• Legal Reasoning (due process, misbehavior, evidentiary procedures)
• Current Affairs (judicial controversies, ethics in governance)
• Constitutional Law (separation of powers, Article 124, judicial independence)
• Legal GK (Judges Inquiry Act, impeachment process)